I was struck recently, when I realised I'd been out here for a month. Not only is this already the longest time I've been abroad, but it also feels simultaneously as if I've been out for a lot longer. Working days are surprisingly intense, and there's always plenty of things to sort out between times- namely travel money, food shopping and planning lessons. It's safe to say that come bedtime I'm grateful to have a nice soft pillow on which to fall!
At the same time, I couldn't help but think I could be doing more to immerse myself completely in the culture of Andalusia. And no, I'm not talking about the nightlife! What I've become fascinated by over the past two years at NTU is how Spain became the country it is now. Since arriving here I've been asking myself, what makes each region unique? Why does Andalucía have it's own dialect, architecture and unique gastronomy, for example? And that's to say nothing about some of the most influential figures in the history of Spanish art (Velasquez and Picasso) and literature (Garcia-Lorca) and even world history (Christopher Columbus) who hail from the province.
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| Federico Garcia Lorca park. One of many reminders of the city's heritage. |
With these questions in mind, I decided to flick through the various guidebooks I purchased prior to travelling out, along with tracking down the local library for some extra research. The result? Well, I wouldn't call it a comprehensive guide on the history of Andalucía, but it struck me that it would be beneficial for my budding 'Cultural Competence', and that it would at least be a fun topic to dedicate a blog to. Historical research is another thing to keep me occupied and engaged, after all.
Whilst reading up (and I use that phrase incredibly loosely in this case) it's safe to say I was staggered at some of the influences behind the province's development throughout the course of history. So many cultures influenced early Andalucía: Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Visigoths, and of course the Moors, who ruled Al-Andaluz for nearly eight-hundred years. What you'll find in this blog is not a comprehensive history of Andalucía (thank God!) but I hope you enjoy this quick run-down as much as I enjoyed putting it together. Happy reading!
Early Andalucía
According to Andalusian historians, the earliest signs of human settlement in the province can be found in the Cueva de Nerja on the Costa del Sol in the form of cave paintings. These date back as far as the Palaeolithic era, 10,000-2000 BC. Ancients believed the world ended at the 'Pillars of Hercules' in the Strait of Gibraltar. The first to venture beyond this point were the Phoenicians, who in 1100 BC founded the ancient city of Gadir, now known to the world as Cadiz. To this day Cadiz remains the world's oldest city. Malaka (Malaga) and Sexi (Almunecar, also what a name!) followed soon after. The dominant culture of Andalucía has changed hands many times since, with influential historical figures such as Hannibal and Julius Caesar playing key roles. Caesar even fought a decisive battle near Cordoba to become dictator of Rome during the Roman Civil War. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Visigoths ruled Southern Spain from Toledo until 711 AD, fighting off the Byzantines along the way.
In 711, the Arab General Tariq Ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with an army of 7000 men, landing near today's Tarifa, to settle a dispute among the Visigoths. Over the following three years the Muslim army conquered virtually all of the Iberian peninsula, up to the Asturian mountains, Galicia and the Basque Country.
Al Andaluz: 711-1212
With only the North remaining under Christian control the Moors named their new territories Al-Andaluz, establishing an independent caliphate in 911, of which Cordoba was named the capital. The city became known throughout Europe for its literature, art and science.
The Moors wasted little time making their mark on their new kingdom. They imported new crops, such as rice, and production of unique luxury goods like cotton and silk bought Al-Andaluz a dramatic cultural and economic flowering. Moreover the Moors practiced religious tolerance with the Christians and Jews living amongst them, many of whom voluntarily converted to Islam. The year 785 also saw the beginning of the construction of the famous Mosque of Cordoba. Despite the flourishing of the province, the Moors remained on their guard against Christian forces from the un-occupied regions north of the Asturian mountains.
The mid-10th Century saw the peak of Moorish culture in Andalucía, and also included victories over the Christians at Toledo and occupation of North Africa, although it was promptly lost again in 979. The Moors also conquered Barcelona (985), Leon (987) and Santiago de Compostela (997). This dominance would not last however, as in the 11th Century the caliphate collapsed into smaller, feuding party states. What followed was a period of disunity and political instability which allowed the Christians an opportunity to regain control of southern Spain. They didn't waste it.
La Reconquista: 1212-1492
The War between the Christians and Muslims began with a decisive Christian victory in the 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, near Jaen. Shortly after, Cordoba and Sevilla also fell to the Christian advance. Towards the end of the 13th Century only Granada remained under Muslim control. In the retaken territories, throughout the course of this period, Christian monarchs such as Alfonso X and Pedro I instructed mudejar craftsmen to build churches and structures in an attempt to replace the Muslim architecture. Granada had been established as the capital of the Nasrid Emirate, which included Almeria and stretched as far as Gibraltar. This made Granada the richest city in the Iberian peninsula and also its cultural centre. During this time the Muslims left the city one of its most famous landmarks- the Al Hambra palace.
In 1246 a fragile peace had been agreed, although Christian incursions continued to chip away at the caliphate's dominion. Following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon and the joining of Spain's two great Christian kingdoms in 1469, open war with Granada was renewed once again, until the Monarchs entered the city on 2 January 1492. Boabdil, the last Moorish ruler, quickly withdrew to Africa, thus ending almost eight hundred years of Islamic culture in Andalucía.
The Golden Age and the Bourbons: 1492-1808
Christopher Columbus was a good friend of Queen Isabella, as even before the occupation of Granada the two had agreed a series of contracts allowing the famous explorer to launch his voyages of discovery from Andalusian ports. In 1492 he set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Cadiz in 1493, in 1498 Sanlucar de Barrameda and finally Cadiz again in 1502. His discovery of the New World in 1492 also marks the beginning of Spain's colonial empire, one of history's leading economic and military powers due to vast increases in trade, industry and art- the last of which is associated by many as the keystone of Spain's Golden Age in the 16th Century. Seville was the greatest profiteer from Columbus' adventures, as this was where all the ships landed first upon their return from Spain's new colonies, laden with goods and gold, highlighting the importance of the Guadalquivir river to Andalucía's economy. In fact, in 1503 Seville was granted a monopoly of all goods and gold from the New World and for a brief period Spain became the leading economic power in Europe.
In 1700 King Charles II died without an heir. In his will he left the crown to the French prince Philip of Anjou. He was subsequently proclaimed by his grandfather Louis XIV, who stated that Spain and France would be united. France was already a feared power throughout Europe and a combined alliance of England, Holland, Prussia and Austria supported the Archduke Charles of Austria on the Spanish throne instead of Philip. Then in 1711 the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I died, with the Archduke Charles named as his successor. Thus many became worried about the balance of European power, if Charles were to become ruler of both the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. Suddenly Philip became the lesser of two evils. These problems were all resolved however, with the 1713 Peace Treaty of Utrecht, which proclaimed Philip as king on the basis that Spain and France would never be united, weakening the country's military power.
Moreover, due to the treaty Spain lost many overseas colonies, most crucially of all Gibraltar to the British. Ties with France also forced Spain into the Napoleonic wars, resulting in a decisive defeat to the British fleet, lead by Admiral Nelson, at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Weakened by Spain's conflicts and the loss of her territories, Andalucia became one of the country's poorest regions.
Unrest: From Napoleon to the Civil War: 1808-1939
Following the defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleonic troops marched into Cadiz in 1808, occupying Spain and signalling the start of many years of guerrilla warfare between free-thinking liberals, and conservative supporters of the monarchy. This period saw the founding of the first Spanish constitution in 1812. By 1814, the Spanish monarchy was restored with the ascension of Ferdinand III. However, in 1820 the Liberals instigated an uprising in Cadiz, forcing the king to once again relinquish power to a constitution. As Spain was embroiled in political turmoil, other countries throughout Europe were experiencing the industrial revolution. Thus Andalucia fell further behind, forcing agricultural workers into an even lower economic position and planting ideas of socialism and anarchy in their minds. Landowners eventually became incredibly vocal about their situation during strikes and revolts in the latter half of the 19th century.
The dysfunctional First Republic lasted only a year (1873-1874). Following a military coup in 1910 the monarchy was restored with the crowning of Alfonso XII, who ruled a 'Constitutional Monarchy'- a paradoxical term if ever there was one! The chasm between the ruling Bourgeoisie and working class Proletariat (the aforementioned agricultural workers in this case, due to the lack of industrial revolution) proceeded to sow the seeds of revolution, not only in Andalusia but nationwide. Unlike the rest of Europe, Spain remained so feudal that social protest was rife. As a result, King Alfonso XIII (son of Alfonso XII) authorised General Miguel Primo de Rivera to take power via military coup in an attempt to establish social order. Rivera governed Spain as dictator from 1923-1930.
The 1930's saw the establishment of a Republic, whose government was composed of liberals and moderate socialists and the establishment, once again, of a constitution, following Alfonso XIII's abdication. However, rigid social order meant much anticipated social reforms were slow to arrive. From 1931-1936 social tensions grew between extreme left and right-wing (including the infamous Falangists) movements throughout the nation. 1936 also saw the murder of Federico Garcia-Lorca, one of Granada's favourite sons, at the hands of Falange activists. The outspoken poet and playwright was murdered in his home. His body was never found.
On 18th July 1936 a Moroccan garrison invaded Spain, lead by General Francisco Franco. The plan for a rapid strike to the heart of the young Republic failed however, resulting in three years of conflict between Spaniards loyal to the Republic, and Franco's Right-Wing rebels, a period which is now known more commonly as the Spanish Civil War. Following the rebel's victory in 1939 Spain became the last Nationalist state in Europe.
Aftermath, Present and Future: 1975-Present
Franco would rule as dictator until his death in 1975, during which time many thousands of Republicans were murdered or mysteriously disappeared. To this day, mass graves continue to be unearthed throughout the Spanish countryside and the whereabouts of many people's relatives remain unknown. Following King Juan Carlos' ascension in 1975, Spain's regions clamoured for autonomy from Franco's previously centralised government. Andalusia became autonomous in 1982, after the sevillano Felipe Gonzalez came to power. Furthermore following Spain's re-entry into the European Union in 1986, Andalucia's economy flourished once again. This would only last until 2009, when the country fell into economic depression following the global financial crisis.
Spain's recession continues today, although recent figures from Mariano Rajoy's government hint at the seeds of recovery. Andalucía also faces problems in the form of illegal immigration from Africa, many of whom cross the strait of Gibraltar daily. This, combined with many younger generations of Spaniards leaving their country to seek work elsewhere is altering the country's demographic dramatically, meaning that national retirement age has had to be put back, resulting in elderly Spaniards continuing to work whilst seeing an influx of a new younger generation arriving in Spain seeking a new life, without the necessary tools with which to earn it sustainably or legally.
Conclusion
And....breathe! Thanks for sticking through all the way to the end, throughout the course of this lengthy and at times complex narrative. The history of Spain is an area which has fascinated me since I began my studies at NTU in October 2013. Granted, it's not for everyone, but what better way to immerse yourself in the culture of a foreign country than making the effort to dive right in, and reading up a bit? History is another hobby of mine, and as I have already said, it's vital to use areas of interest to your advantage when it comes to cultural immersion. I'm not pretending that I've become an expert on all things Andalucía over the last fortnight, or that this is all there is to it. Quite the contrary, if I submitted this as a piece of work it would bomb emphatically! But I really hope this has at least piqued some people's curiosity, as those early Spanish Culture lectures at Trent did for me. It seems like so long ago, and going back over some of the details has certainly bought back a few memories and made me reflect more pensively about how far I've come over the last two years, and how much I love what I'm doing now.
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| The last great reminder of the Muslim Caliphate strikes an imposing silhouette... |
Well, that's that. Until next time. I promise to make it a bit briefer...
"To burn with desire and keep quiet about it is the greatest punishment we can bring on ourselves"
Federico Garcia-Lorca, Blood Wedding and Yerma
Cited Works:
- Eyewitness Travel: Seville and Andalucia, Dorling Kindersley LTD, 1996
- Andalucia: The Travel Guide, Marco Polo, 2013
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